Error Handling

Panic vs Result

Rust divides errors into two categories: unrecoverable (bugs) and recoverable (expected Failures).

Panics

Panics are for unrecoverable programming errors — the kind of bugs where the program cannot continue Correctly. When a panic occurs, the runtime unwinds the stack (by default), calling destructors for All live values, and then aborts the thread (or the process in panic = "abort" mode).

fn main() {
    panic!("this is a deliberate crash");
}

Common panic sources:

unwrap() on None or Err
Array index out of bounds
Integer overflow in debug mode
assert!``assert_eq!``assert_ne! failures
Calling panic! directly
Division by zero

Stack Unwinding vs Abort

The default panic strategy is unwinding (destructors run). You can set panic = "abort" in Cargo.toml to terminate immediately without unwinding:

[profile.release]
panic = "abort"

Trade-offs:

Unwinding: Safe cleanup (destructors run, Drop::drop is called), larger binary size (unwind tables), slightly slower.
Abort: Smaller binary, faster, but no cleanup. File handles, network connections, and locks may not be released properly.

For embedded and no_std targets, panic = "abort" is often the only option.

`std::panic::catch_unwind`

You can catch panics in the current thread:

use std::panic;

fn may_panic() -> i32 {
    panic!("crash");
}

let result = panic::catch_unwind(may_panic);
assert!(result.is_err());

Across FFI boundaries (panics through C callbacks are undefined behavior). It is also not a Substitute for proper error handling — use it sparingly, for plugin systems or process Isolation.

`unwrap` and `expect`

let some_value: Option<i32> = Some(42);
some_value.unwrap();    // 42 — panics on None
some_value.expect("value should exist");  // 42 — panics with message on None

let result: Result<i32, &str> = Ok(10);
result.unwrap();        // 10 — panics on Err
result.expect("parse should succeed"); // 10 — panics with message on Err

Value should exist and makes debugging easier when the panic occurs.

When `unwrap` Is Acceptable

In main() or tests where a panic terminates the program gracefully
When you have already validated the precondition (e.g., after an if check)
In prototypes and examples where error handling would obscure the logic

#[test]
fn test_addition() {
    let result = add(2, 3);
    assert_eq!(result.unwrap(), 5);
}

`Option` Combinators

`map` and `and_then`

let x: Option<i32> = Some(2);

x.map(|n| n * 2);          // Some(4)
x.map(|n| n.to_string());  // Some("2")

x.and_then(|n| {
    if n > 0 { Some(n * 2) } else { None }
});  // Some(4)

map transforms the inner value if SomePasses through None. and_then (also known as flatMap or bind) chains operations that may fail — if the first operation returns NoneThe Entire chain short-circuits.

`unwrap_or` and `unwrap_or_else`

let x: Option<i32> = None;

x.unwrap_or(0);              // 0 — always evaluated
x.unwrap_or_else(|| {
    println!("computing default");
    expensive_computation()   // only evaluated for None
});

Use unwrap_or_else when the default value is expensive to compute. The closure is called lazily Only when the Option is None.

`ok_or` and `ok_or_else`

Convert Option to Result by specifying the error type:

let x: Option<i32> = Some(42);
let r: Result<i32, &str> = x.ok_or("missing value");  // Ok(42)

let y: Option<i32> = None;
let r: Result<i32, &str> = y.ok_or("missing value");  // Err("missing value")

let r: Result<i32, String> = y.ok_or_else(|| {
    format!("value missing at line {}", line_number)
});

filter``zip``unzip

let x: Option<i32> = Some(5);
x.filter(|&n| n > 3);       // Some(5)
x.filter(|&n| n > 10);      // None

let a = Some(1);
let b = Some(2);
let c: Option<(i32, i32)> = a.zip(b);  // Some((1, 2))

let pair = Some((1, 2));
let (first, second): (Option<i32>, Option<i32>) = pair.unzip();
// first == Some(1), second == Some(2)

is_some``is_none``as_ref``as_mut

let x: Option<String> = Some("hello".to_string());

x.is_some();   // true
x.is_none();   // false

let r: Option<&String> = x.as_ref();   // Some(&String)
let m: Option<&mut String> = x.as_mut(); // Some(&mut String)

as_ref borrows the Option as Option<&T> without moving the inner value. as_mut does the same For mutable borrows.

Iterating Over `Option`

Option implements IntoIteratorSo you can use it in for loops:

let x: Option<i32> = Some(5);
for value in x {
    println!("{}", value);  // prints 5
}

let y: Option<i32> = None;
for value in y {
    println!("{}", value);  // never executes
}

`Result` Combinators

`map` and `map_err`

let r: Result<i32, &str> = Ok(42);

r.map(|n| n * 2);          // Ok(84)
r.map_err(|e| e.to_string()); // Ok(42) — map_err transforms the error

let e: Result<i32, &str> = Err("bad input");
e.map_err(|e| format!("error: {}", e)); // Err("error: bad input")

`and_then` and `or_else`

fn parse(s: &str) -> Result<i32, &str> {
    s.parse().map_err(|_| "not a number")
}

fn validate(n: i32) -> Result<i32, &str> {
    if n >= 0 { Ok(n) } else { Err("negative") }
}

// Chaining with and_then — short-circuits on Err
let result = parse("42").and_then(validate); // Ok(42)
let result = parse("abc").and_then(validate); // Err("not a number")
let result = parse("-5").and_then(validate); // Err("negative")

unwrap_or``unwrap_or_else

let r: Result<i32, &str> = Err("failed");

r.unwrap_or(0);                // 0
r.unwrap_or_else(|e| e.len() * 10); // 60 (len("failed") == 6, 6*10)

`unwrap_or_default`

let r: Result<i32, &str> = Err("failed");
assert_eq!(r.unwrap_or_default(), 0);  // i32::default() == 0

let r: Result<String, &str> = Err("failed");
assert_eq!(r.unwrap_or_default(), ""); // String::default() == ""

`inspect` and `inspect_err`

inspect allows you to examine a Result without changing it — useful for logging:

let r: Result<i32, ParseIntError> = "42".parse();
let r = r.inspect(|&n| println!("parsed: {}", n)); // Ok(42), side effect printed

`flatten`

Flatten a nested Result<Result<T, E>, E> into Result<T, E>:

let nested: Result<Result<i32, &str>, &str> = Ok(Ok(42));
let flat: Result<i32, &str> = nested.flatten(); // Ok(42)

The `?` Operator

The ? operator propagates errors. It is syntactic sugar for a match that returns early on Err:

fn read_config(path: &str) -> Result<Config, Box<dyn std::error::Error>> {
    let content = std::fs::read_to_string(path)?;   // returns Err on IO failure
    let config: Config = serde_json::from_str(&content)?; // returns Err on parse failure
    Ok(config)
}

Desugared:

fn read_config(path: &str) -> Result<Config, Box<dyn std::error::Error>> {
    let content = match std::fs::read_to_string(path) {
        Ok(c) => c,
        Err(e) => return Err(e.into()),
    };
    let config: Config = match serde_json::from_str(&content) {
        Ok(c) => c,
        Err(e) => return Err(e.into()),
    };
    Ok(config)
}

`?` with `Option`

The ? operator also works with Option. In a function returning Option<T>``? propagates None:

fn first_even(nums: &[i32]) -> Option<i32> {
    let &n = nums.iter().find(|&&n| n % 2 == 0)?;
    Some(n * 2)
}

`?` and `From` Trait Conversion

The ? operator automatically converts errors using the From trait. If the function returns Result<T, E>Then ? on a Result<T2, E2> will call E2::from(e) to convert the error, Provided impl From<E2> for E exists:

use std::fs;
use std::io;

fn read_file(path: &str) -> Result<String, io::Error> {
    let content = fs::read_to_string(path)?;  // io::Error propagates directly
    Ok(content)
}

fn read_file_boxed(path: &str) -> Result<String, Box<dyn std::error::Error>> {
    let content = fs::read_to_string(path)?;  // io::Error -> Box<dyn Error> via From
    Ok(content)
}

The conversion chain: io::Error implements Into<Box<dyn std::error::Error>>So ? can convert io::Error into Box<dyn Error> automatically.

Early Return with `?` in `main`

fn main() -> Result<(), Box<dyn std::error::Error>> {
    let content = fs::read_to_string("config.toml")?;
    let config: Config = toml::from_str(&content)?;
    println!("loaded config: {:?}", config);
    Ok(())
}

Since Rust 1.26, main can return Result. The runtime will print the error and set the exit code To 1 on Err.

`?` in `Option` vs `Result` Functions

The ? operator can only be used in functions that return Result or Option. Using ? on a Result in an Option function is a compile error, and vice versa. If you need to mix them, Convert explicitly:

fn maybe_read(path: &str) -> Option<String> {
    Some(std::fs::read_to_string(path).ok()?)
}

Custom Error Types

Manual Implementation

use std::fmt;

#[derive(Debug)]
enum AppError {
    Io(std::io::Error),
    Parse(std::num::ParseIntError),
    NotFound(String),
    Validation(String),
}

impl fmt::Display for AppError {
    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut fmt::Formatter) -> fmt::Result {
        match self {
            AppError::Io(e) => write!(f, "IO error: {}", e),
            AppError::Parse(e) => write!(f, "parse error: {}", e),
            AppError::NotFound(msg) => write!(f, "not found: {}", msg),
            AppError::Validation(msg) => write!(f, "validation error: {}", msg),
        }
    }
}

impl std::error::Error for AppError {
    fn source(&self) -> Option<&(dyn std::error::Error + "static)> {
        match self {
            AppError::Io(e) => Some(e),
            AppError::Parse(e) => Some(e),
            _ => None,
        }
    }
}

impl From<std::io::Error> for AppError {
    fn from(e: std::io::Error) -> Self {
        AppError::Io(e)
    }
}

impl From<std::num::ParseIntError> for AppError {
    fn from(e: std::num::ParseIntError) -> Self {
        AppError::Parse(e)
    }
}

This is verbose but gives full control. Each From implementation enables the ? operator for that Error type.

`thiserror` — Derive Macro for Errors

The thiserror crate eliminates the boilerplate:

[dependencies]
thiserror = "2"

use thiserror::Error;

#[derive(Error, Debug)]
enum AppError {
    #[error("IO error: {0}")]
    Io(#[from] std::io::Error),

    #[error("parse error: {0}")]
    Parse(#[from] std::num::ParseIntError),

    #[error("resource not found: {0}")]
    NotFound(String),

    #[error("validation failed: {field} - {reason}")]
    Validation { field: String, reason: String },
}

#[from] automatically generates the From implementation, enabling ? propagation. The #[error] attribute defines the Display message, with {0} for the first field, {field} for Named fields.

`thiserror` with Source Chains

#[derive(Error, Debug)]
enum AppError {
    #[error("database error")]
    Db(#[from] sqlx::Error),

    #[error("HTTP request failed: {0}")]
    Http(#[from] reqwest::Error),

    #[error("config error in {path}: {source}")]
    Config {
        path: String,
        #[source]
        source: std::io::Error,
    },
}

The #[source] attribute sets Error::source() for error chain introspection. anyhow::Error and std::error::Error::source() walk this chain.

`thiserror` with `#[error(transparent)]`

#[derive(Error, Debug)]
enum AppError {
    #[error(transparent)]
    Io(#[from] std::io::Error),

    #[error(transparent)]
    Parse(#[from] serde_json::Error),
}

#[error(transparent)] forwards the inner error’s Display message directly, making the wrapper Error invisible in error reports.

`anyhow` — Ergonomic Error Handling for Applications

anyhow is designed for application code (binaries, CLIs) where you want to propagate errors with Context without defining custom error enums for every function.

[dependencies]
anyhow = "1"

use anyhow::{Context, Result};

fn read_config(path: &str) -> Result<Config> {
    let content = std::fs::read_to_string(path)
        .context(format!("failed to read config file: {}", path))?;

    let config: Config = serde_json::from_str(&content)
        .context("failed to parse config as JSON")?;

    Ok(config)
}

`anyhow` vs `thiserror`

Use `anyhow` for	Use `thiserror` for
Application binaries	Library crates
Quick prototyping	Public APIs with typed errors
Functions with many error sources	Error types that callers need to match on
Scripts and CLIs	When the caller needs to distinguish error kinds

A common pattern: use thiserror in your library crate to define precise error types, and use anyhow in the application crate that consumes the library.

`anyhow::Error` Chain

anyhow::Error wraps any error type that implements std::error::Error + Send + Sync + 'static. It Preserves the error chain for debugging:

use anyhow::{Error, Result};

fn process() -> Result<()> {
    let content = std::fs::read_to_string("missing.txt")?;
    Ok(())
}

fn main() {
    if let Err(e) = process() {
        // Print the full error chain
        for cause in e.chain() {
            eprintln!("caused by: {}", cause);
        }
    }
}

`anyhow::ensure!`

use anyhow::{ensure, Result};

fn validate_age(age: u32) -> Result<()> {
    ensure!(age < 150, "age {} is implausible", age);
    ensure!(age > 0, "age must be positive");
    Ok(())
}

ensure! is assert! but returns Result::Err instead of panicking.

Error Handling Patterns

Converting Errors

Convert errors from one type to another using From implementations or map_err:

fn parse_config(content: &str) -> Result<Config, AppError> {
    let config: Config = serde_json::from_str(content)
        .map_err(AppError::Serialization)?;
    Ok(config)
}

Wrapping Errors

Add context to errors as they propagate up the call stack:

use std::path::PathBuf;

fn load_database(path: PathBuf) -> Result<Database, AppError> {
    let content = std::fs::read_to_string(&path)
        .map_err(|e| AppError::IoContext {
            path: path.display().to_string(),
            source: e,
        })?;
    // ...
}

Mapping Errors in Iterators

When processing a collection where individual items may fail:

let results: Vec<Result<i32, &str>> = vec!["1", "2", "three", "4"]
    .iter()
    .map(|s| s.parse::<i32>().map_err(|_| "not a number"))
    .collect();

// Collect into Result<Vec<T>, E> — stops at first error
let results: Result<Vec<i32>, &str> = vec!["1", "2", "three", "4"]
    .iter()
    .map(|s| s.parse::<i32>().map_err(|_| "not a number"))
    .collect();
// Err("not a number")

Error Recovery — `filter_map` and `partition`

When you want to skip failures instead of propagating them:

let inputs = vec!["1", "2", "three", "4", "five", "6"];
let (numbers, errors): (Vec<i32>, Vec<&str>) = inputs
    .iter()
    .filter_map(|s| {
        s.parse::<i32>()
            .map(|n| (n, None))
            .unwrap_or_else(|_| (0, Some(*s)))
            .map(|(n, _)| n)
            .ok()
    })
    .collect();

A simpler approach using partition:

let inputs = vec!["1", "2", "three", "4", "five", "6"];
let parsed: Vec<Result<i32, _>> = inputs
    .iter()
    .map(|s| s.parse::<i32>())
    .collect();

let (successes, failures): (Vec<_>, Vec<_>) = parsed
    .into_iter()
    .partition(Result::is_ok);

let numbers: Vec<i32> = successes.into_iter().map(Result::unwrap).collect();
let errors: Vec<_> = failures.into_iter().map(Result::unwrap_err).collect();

The Error Trait

std::error::Error is the base trait for error types:

pub trait Error: Debug + Display {
    fn source(&self) -> Option<&(dyn Error + 'static)> { None }
    fn description(&self) -> &str { "description() is deprecated" }
    fn cause(&self) -> Option<&dyn Error> { self.source() }
}

Implementing Error is optional — any type implementing Debug + Display can be used as an error. But implementing Error enables source() chaining and compatibility with anyhow.

Error Chains and `std::error::Error::source()`

The source() method enables error chain walking, which is used by error reporting libraries:

use std::error::Error;
use std::fmt;

#[derive(Debug)]
struct OuterError {
    message: String,
    source: InnerError,
}

#[derive(Debug)]
struct InnerError {
    code: u32,
}

impl fmt::Display for OuterError {
    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut fmt::Formatter) -> fmt::Result {
        write!(f, "{} (inner code: {})", self.message, self.source.code)
    }
}

impl fmt::Display for InnerError {
    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut fmt::Formatter) -> fmt::Result {
        write!(f, "inner error with code {}", self.code)
    }
}

impl Error for OuterError {
    fn source(&self) -> Option<&(dyn Error + 'static)> {
        Some(&self.source)
    }
}

impl Error for InnerError {}

Walking the chain:

let outer = OuterError {
    message: "operation failed".into(),
    source: InnerError { code: 42 },
};

let mut cause: &dyn Error = &outer;
while let Some(source) = cause.source() {
    eprintln!("caused by: {}", source);
    cause = source;
}

`eyre` — Alternative to `anyhow`

eyre is a fork of anyhow with better customization for error reports:

[dependencies]
eyre = "0.6"

use eyre::{Result, WrapErr};

fn main() -> Result<()> {
    let content = std::fs::read_to_string("config.toml")
        .wrap_err("failed to read config file")?;
    Ok(())
}

eyre supports custom error reporters via the eyre::EyreHandler trait, allowing structured error Output (JSON, colored terminal output, etc.) without changing error propagation code.

Recoverable vs Unrecoverable Errors

Use `Result` When

The error is an expected outcome (file not found, invalid input, network timeout)
The caller should decide how to handle the error
The error is part of the function’s contract

Use `panic` When

The program has entered an invalid state that cannot be corrected
An invariant has been violated
The error indicates a bug in the program, not an expected failure

Use `unwrap`/`expect` When

In tests where a panic provides clear failure output
In main() where the error message is sufficient
When you have verified the precondition immediately before (and the verifier is correct)

fn process(data: &HashMap<String, Vec<i32>>) -> i32 {
    let values = data.get("key").expect("key must exist — invariant checked by caller");
    values.iter().sum()
}

`std::error::Error` Trait in Depth

The Error trait has evolved across Rust editions:

Rust 1.81+ — `Error::provide` and `std::error::Request`

Rust 1.81 stabilized the provide method, which allows errors to provide type-erased context data:

use std::error::Error;
use std::fmt;

#[derive(Debug)]
struct DbError {
    query: String,
    code: u32,
}

impl fmt::Display for DbError {
    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut fmt::Formatter) -> fmt::Result {
        write!(f, "database error code {}: {}", self.code, self.query)
    }
}

impl Error for DbError {
    fn provide<'a>(&'a self, request: &mut std::error::Request<'a>) {
        request.provide_value::<u32>(&self.code);
        request.provide_ref::<str>(&self.query);
    }
}

This allows error handlers to extract structured data from errors without downcasting:

use std::error::Error;
use std::error::request_value;

fn handle_error(err: &dyn Error) {
    if let Some(code) = request_value::<u32>(err) {
        println!("error code: {}", code);
    }
}

Common Pitfalls

Using unwrap() on external input. Parsing user input, reading files, making network requests — all of these can fail in expected ways. Always use ? or explicit error handling for these operations.
Swallowing errors with let _ =. Writing let _ = result silently discards the error. At minimum, log the error: if let Err(e) = result { log::warn!("operation failed: {}", e); }.
Box<dyn Error> loses type information. When you use Box<dyn Error> as the error type, the caller cannot match on specific error variants. This is fine for applications (use anyhow) but inappropriate for libraries where callers need to distinguish error types.
Not implementing Error for library error types. If your library defines a custom error type, implement std::error::Error (or derive it with thiserror). This enables ? propagation, error chain walking, and anyhow compatibility.
Over-engineering error types in applications. In a binary, you rarely need to match on specific error variants — you just need to report them to the user or log them. Use anyhow with .context() and avoid defining large error enums unless you have a specific need.
Mixing Result and Option without conversion. Calling ? on a Result inside an Option function is a compile error. Use .ok() to convert Result to Option or .ok_or() to convert Option to Result.
Error types that are not Send + Sync. By default, Box<dyn Error> requires Send + Sync. If your error type contains Rc or other non-thread-safe types, it cannot be used with ? in async contexts or across threads. Use Arc instead of RcOr ensure all error fields are Send + Sync.
Not adding context to errors. A bare io::Error tells you what went wrong but not where or why. Use .context() (anyhow) or .map_err(|e| AppError::Context { ... }) to add contextual information as the error propagates up the call stack.
Panicking in library code. Libraries should never panic on expected failure modes. Panics are for bugs (internal invariant violations). If a library function receives invalid input, it should return ErrNot panic. The one exception is debug_assert! which is compiled out in release mode.
Using match instead of ? for error propagation. Writing explicit match blocks for every Result is verbose and error-prone. The ? operator is the idiomatic way to propagate errors. Use match only when you need to handle specific error variants differently.

Summary

This topic covers the core concepts of error handling, including underlying theory, practical implementation, and key applications.

Key concepts include:

ownership, borrowing, and lifetimes
structs, enums, and pattern matching
traits and generics
error handling (Result, Option)
concurrency with threads and async

Understanding these concepts thoroughly is essential for both examinations and practical programming, and requires both theoretical knowledge and hands-on practice.

Worked Examples

Worked examples demonstrating the application of key concepts are covered in the detailed sub-pages linked above.

## Intuition

Rust uses Result<T, E> instead of exceptions. The ? operator propagates errors up the call stack concisely. Optionhandles nullable values without null pointer exceptions. This explicit error handling makes failure paths visible in function signatures, forcing callers to handle errors. The type system ensures you cannot accidentally ignore a Result, and the compiler guides you toward proper error recovery patterns.

Cross-References

[[rust/02-ownership-borrowing/ownership]] - Ownership of error values
[[rust/03-structs-enums/structs-and-enums]] - Custom error types with enums
[[rust/05-traits-generics/traits-and-generics]] - From trait for error conversion
[[rust/04-error-handling/error-handling-patterns]] - Advanced error handling patterns